When I first began working with older people over 30 years ago, I thought I had a reasonable idea of what ageing looked like. I was wrong. The people I’ve worked with over the years have taught me far more than any textbook. They’ve shown me how ageing can deepen the emotional life, strengthen relationships and roles; and reveal strength and resilience in unexpected ways. Walking alongside people in later life has changed the way I understand ageing.

This clinical experience is the foundation of my reflections here. Looking back over three decades of work has also led me to look back further into history, to ask how earlier generations made sense of growing older.

Ageing Across History

Across the centuries, people have struggled with the realities of growing old. Early writings reveal a resistance to the common physical changes. Ancient Egyptians regarded ageing with a mixture of fear and respect. They saw age-related decline but also recognised the rewards of later life. Holding strong beliefs in an afterlife meant considerable time and resources were devoted to ‘preparing’ the dead for their journey.  In many societies, the older person was revered for their wisdom and spiritual authority, even while their frailties were part of daily reality (Sullman & Mohammadinasab, 2025).

Character and Coping

Plato (c. 427-347 BC/2007) maintained that respect for older people was crucial for social progress. He suggested that people who were naturally well-adjusted and easy going in their youth, would cope well with old age, while those lacking these traits might struggle more. In my experience, the greater emotional difficulties in later life often reflect the weight of a difficult childhood.  

Aristotle (c. 384-322 BC/2019) offered a different view, attributing many negative qualities to older people. Although, he recognised that with wealth, health, and a gradual transition to old age, later years could be enjoyed. In my work, I’ve observed that what appears as stubbornness or irritability in older people sometimes relates more to changing cognitive or physical capacities than to lifelong character traits.

These ideas about character and coping in old age resonated with later thinkers. They led to the stoic reflections of Marcus Aurelius (170-180 AD / 2002), who considered the stages of life with calm and acceptance.

Stoic Perspectives

Marcus Aurelius (170-180 AD / 2002), the stoic Roman Emperor, reflected on life’s stages in Meditations, advising, “Turn thy thoughts now to the consideration of thy life, thy life as a child, as a youth, thy manhood, thy old age, for in these also every change was a death. Is this anything to fear”?  His meaning is clear; life brings change and loss but is nothing to dread. He invites mindful awareness. In my work with older people, I teach mindfulness and have observed that those who reflect in this way often navigate later life with greater resilience. This theme resonates with Jung’s (1933/2017) reflections on the “afternoon of life” and the inner work of ageing.

The Afternoon of Life

Jung (1961 /1995) considered old age a time of life review. In his old age Jung reflected “My life as I lived it often seemed to me like a story that has no beginning and no end”. In his essay on the stages of life, he observed, “Thoroughly unprepared we take the step into the afternoon of life……. But we cannot live the afternoon of life according to the programme of life’s morning: for what was great in the morning, will be little at evening; and what in the morning was true will at evening have become a lie” (Jung, 1933/2017).

In my work, I often see this reflected in practice. Many revisit their life stories, reassess past choices, reconcile regrets, and appreciate achievements.  This aligns with Jung’s idea of the “afternoon of life”. Older people often discover new strengths, interests and creativity, while integrating past losses and changing roles; shaping a renewed sense of self. While Jung highlighted the emotional journey of later life, Erikson (1963/1997) expanded on this by describing the broader psychosocial tasks and challenges that older people face.

Integrity and Life Reflection

Erikson (1963/1997) proposed his stage theory of psychosocial development, identifying the later years’ as the crisis of integrity versus despair. Successfully navigating this stage brings fulfillment, life satisfaction, and a readiness to face death. For Erikson, integrity depends on having met earlier life tasks, such as developing trust, autonomy, competence, and the ability to care for others. Achieving integrity fosters qualities like inner certainty, courage, faith, grace, perseverance and understanding. Old age, he suggested, is a time for reflection, often through life review (Erikson, 1963/1997).

In my clinical work, I often help people reflect on their lives. I invite them to recall, evaluate and find meaning in major life events, including achievements and regrets. I sometimes suggest writing these thoughts and stories in a book, creating a personal record or legacy. This process can help people make sense of their life story and feel more at peace with how far they’ve come. Such reflection supports the psychosocial task Erikson (1963/1997) described as achieving integrity, helping people to face later years with a sense of fulfillment rather than despair. Building on Erikson’s stage of integrity versus despair (1963/1997), Hillman (1999) explored how reflecting on one’s life brings character to the forefront in old age, influencing values, choices, and meaning.

Character and Life Review

Hillman (1999) argued that character becomes more prominent with age, and through life review, begins to guide decisions. Values come under greater scrutiny, with decency and gratitude taking precedence over accuracy and efficiency. Altruism and kindness to strangers becomes more important. Hillman described life review as, “the study of one’s personal biography and its main character that lived it, tells it as a story and now reviews it as a critic, appraiser, judge, inquisitor, and defendant” (Hillman, 1999, p48). Life review is a naturally occurring process of recording the stories of a life to see patterns and develop understanding and character. In earlier years we focus on getting things done; in later years we reflect on what we did and how.

This process is seen in activities such as looking at photo albums, telling stories, or documenting life in an autobiography or family history. In my work, gentle conversational prompts help older people articulate their stories, often uncovering recurring themes and deepening their understanding of self. Contemporary research and clinical practice have adapted life review for ageing, palliative, and dementia care, showing benefits in treating late life depression and improving emotional wellbeing (Westerhof & Slatman, 2019; Jiang, Galin & Lea, 2024). Many find joy and meaning in connecting past experiences to present values. Hillman (1999) suggests the life review is supported by companionship, freedom, engagement with the arts, nature, and quiet reflection.

Choosing What Matters

After thinking about life review and character, modern research adds insight. Carstensen (1992) developed Socioemotional Selectivity Theory (SST), describing how priorities shift with age. Older people focus on meaningful relationships and experiences, investing energy where it matters. They aren’t avoiding new things, but choosing what feels worthwhile. In my clinical practice, I often see them prioritise conversations, projects, and creative pursuits. They sometimes decline social invitations to maintain this focus. This emphasis on meaningful choices connects to Baltes & Baltes (1990) on adapting and compensating in later life.

Adaptation and Continuity

Baltes & Baltes (1990) developed the model of Selective Optimization with Compensation (SOC), describing how older people adjust to what they can no longer do, focus on what they still can, and find ways to make life work. In my clinical practice I see them using walking sticks, hearing aids, and false teeth, to continue doing what matters. This illustrates that old age is not just about decline, it is about adapting and remaining flexible. From Baltes & Balte’s (1990) perspective, ageing is a stage where people continue to seek for meaning and purpose. Many older people continue to achieve remarkable accomplishments. Franz Liszt composed celebrated music at age 70 and performed until 74. Shaw wrote plays in his late eighties. Creativity and meaning do not have an expiry date.

Purpose and Contribution

The historical perspectives and theories of ageing reviewed here help us understand how society values older people. A common theme is the ongoing importance of finding purpose. In my clinical work, I see this purpose emerge through life review, creative projects, meaningful relationships, and new roles.  Older people also find joy in sharing knowledge and experience with grandchildren or in the community. Many care for partners, friends and grandchildren, and volunteer locally. They often provide more support than they receive, including financial help to younger family members.

Society could benefit from recognising and including the experience, knowledge and contributions of older people.  Too often, this knowledge is overlooked, and something essentially human is lost. I’ve written more about this, and about ageism, in a previous blog post.

Final Thoughts

Reflecting on centuries of thought, and decades of my own work, I’ve found that ageing isn’t as negative as most people assume. From this review, we see that later life is a time of change, adaptation, reflection and life review. Now, after three decades of clinical work, I see ageing as just another chapter in a long life full of potential stories.

References

Aristotle. (c. 384-322 BC/ 2019). Nicomachean ethics. (T. Irwin, Trans., 3rd Ed.). Hackett Publishing.

Aurelius, M. (170-180AD/ 2002). Meditations. (G. Hays, Trans.). Modern Library, New York.

Baltes, P. B., & Baltes, M. M. (1990). Psychological perspectives on successful aging: The model of selective optimization with compensation. In P. B. Baltes & M. M. Baltes (Eds.), Successful aging: Perspectives from the behavioral sciences (pp. 1–34). Cambridge University Press. https://doi.org/10.1017/CBO9780511665684.003

Carstensen, L.L. (1992). Social and emotional patterns in adulthood: Support for socioemotional selectivity theory. Psychology and Aging, 7, 331-338. doi:10.1037/0882-7974.7.3.331

Erikson, E. (1997). The life cycle completed. Extended Version. Norton, New York.

Hillman, J. (1999). The force of character and the lasting life. Random House, Australia.

Jiang, V., Galin, A., & Lea, X. (2024). Life review for older adults. An integrative review. Psychogeriatrics, Open Access. doi:10.1111/psyg.13194

Jung, C, G. (1961/1995). Memories, dreams, reflections. An autobiography. Harper Colins, Australia.

Jung, C, G. (1933/2017). The stages of life. Modern man in search of a soul. (2nd Ed., Kindle Ed.). Routledge Classics.

Plato. (427-347 BC/2007). The republic. Penguin

Sullman, M., & Mohammadinasab, R. (2025). The evolution of aging and Gerontology: A historical odyssey. International Journal of Aging, 3:e6. doi: 10.34172/ija.2025.e6.

Westerhof, G. J., & Slatman, S. (2019). In search of the best evidence for life review therapy to reduce depressive symptoms in older adults: A meta-analysis of randomized controlled trials. Clinical Psychology: Science and Practice, 26(4), 11. https://doi.org/10.1111/cpsp.12301